Upconversion Nanomaterials in Bioimaging and Biosensor Applications and Their Biological Response.

In recent decades, upconversion nanomaterials (UCNMs) have attracted considerable research interest because of their unique optical properties, such as large anti-Stokes shifts, sharp emissions, non-photobleaching, and long lifetime. These unique properties make them ideal candidates for unified applications in biomedical fields, including drug delivery, bioimaging, biosensing, and photodynamic therapy for specific cancers. This review describes the general mechanisms of upconversion, synthesis methods, and potential applications in biology and their biological responses. Additionally, the biological toxicity of UCNMs is explained and summarized with the associated intracellular association mechanisms. Finally, the prospects and future challenges of UCNMs at the clinical level in biological applications are described, along with a summary of opportunity for biological as well as clinical applications of UCNMs.